Toward Culturally Responsive Mentoring of Muslim Research Mentees in the Sciences
Abstract
Research experiences are an integral part of training future scientists and fostering diversity in science. Providing culturally responsive research mentorship, defined as mentorship that incorporates cultural knowledge to improve learning experiences for a particular group, is a critical step in this endeavor. While culturally responsive mentoring is most commonly associated with mentoring students with underrepresented races and ethnicities in the sciences, it can also be helpful for mentees with a diversity of abilities, sexualities, economic backgrounds, and religions. In this essay, we discuss how mentors can provide more culturally responsive mentoring of Muslim research mentees in the sciences. Muslims are a stigmatized minority group in the United States who participate in a religious culture that often differs from the secular culture of science. Notably, there are few resources for how to engage in culturally responsive mentoring of Muslim research mentees. To address this gap, we drew from the extant literature on the challenges that Muslims encounter in the United States, which likely extends to the context of scientific research, and identified potential culturally responsive accommodations in research.
INTRODUCTION
Increasing the diversity of scientists in the United States is paramount to ensuring more objective science, promoting social justice, and applying the best and brightest minds toward problems of the 21st century (Intemann, 2009). Specifically, scientific research can benefit from the perspectives of individuals with a diversity of identities, including different genders, races/ethnicities, abilities, sexualities, economic backgrounds, and religions (Intemann, 2009; AlShebli et al., 2018; National Academies of Sciences & Medicine, 2019). One barrier to including scientists with a diversity of identities is the mismatch between personal cultures and the culture of scientific research (Taconis and Kessels, 2009; Stephens et al., 2019), which is largely based on white, male, cis-gender, straight, western, nonreligious views (Battenhouse, 1987; Graves, 2019; Barnes et al., 2020; Google et al., 2023). Participating in scientific research as a mentee, or someone who is trained by a mentor with the intent to reach their goals (MasterClass, 2021), is an integral step to becoming a scientist (Lave and Wenger, 2001; American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2017; NASEM, 2019). Culturally responsive mentoring has been lauded as an effective mentoring practice, and may help bridge the gap between the differing individual cultures of research mentees and the culture of scientific research (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2017; NASEM, 2019). Culturally responsive mentoring encompasses practices where mentors recognize their own culturally shaped beliefs, perceptions, and judgments and value their research mentees’ cultural identities with the intent to improve the mentees’ learning experiences (Byars-Winston et al., 2018; Pfund et al., 2022). While programs have been developed to help mentors become aware of gender and racial/ethnic differences in science (Byars-Winston et al., 2020; Pfund et al., 2022), we argue that mentors should also be cognizant of other less visible identities held by research mentees, including religious identities.
One group of individuals who may benefit from culturally responsive science mentors are Muslims engaging in scientific research as mentees. Muslims, or people who practice the religion of Islam, are a stigmatized minority group in the United States who experience prejudice and discrimination for many reasons, including stereotypes and misunderstandings of Islam (Ciftci, 2012; Casey, 2018). Muslims experienced greater discrimination after the attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001 (Peek, 2003; Abu-Ras and Abu-Bader, 2008; Barkdull et al., 2011; Elver, 2012; Casey, 2018; Farhadi, 2020), with the rise in Islamophobia resulting in a 500% increase in hate crimes toward Muslims from 2000 to 2009 (Brown University, 2021). The rise in hate crimes extended to Muslim undergraduate and graduate students (Ibish and Stewart, 2003; Ali and Bagheri, 2009; Lefdahl-Davis and Perrone-McGovern, 2015; Castellanos et al., 2017; Seppy, 2018; Azim and Happel-Parkins, 2019). Students described being affected by microaggressions and the negative portrayals of Muslims in the media (Rockenbach and Mayhew, 2014; Lefdahl-Davis and Perrone-McGovern, 2015; Azim and Happel-Parkins, 2019; Sheikh, 2022), which culminated in physical, psychological, and emotional distress (Ali and Bagheri, 2009).
In addition to facing discrimination, Muslim undergraduate and graduate students have reported feeling anxious and uncomfortable when trying to adhere to their religious practices while on campus (Stubbs and Sallee, 2013; Chen et al., 2019; Pouraskari, 2020; Sheikh, 2022). As summarized by Ali and Bagheri, (2009), such religious practices include praying, fasting, dressing modestly, and abstaining from alcohol. A lack of understanding and accommodations for religious norms, beliefs, and standards can further Muslim students’ discomfort (Nasir and Al-Amin, 2006; Ali and Bagheri, 2009). Navigating Islamic practices and beliefs in the context of scientific research specifically may pose additional challenges for Muslim research mentees on college campuses. For example, it is hypothesized that both Muslim undergraduate and graduate students may experience a mismatch between their religion and the culture of science due to the secularity of academic science (Ecklund and Scheitle, 2007; Barnes et al., 2020; Barnes et al., 2021). This potential for the disconnect between religious cultures outside of science and the secular culture within science may contribute to science environments excluding nondominant groups (Google et al., 2023).
The stigmatization of Muslims in the United States and the challenges they can experience have resulted in guidelines for how to be inclusive of Muslims on campuses and in the workplace (Nasir and Al-Amin, 2006; Ali and Bagheri, 2009; Findley et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2019). However, we argue that it is important to address inclusive mentoring in the specific context of scientific research, “where a student works in a laboratory or in the field on a project with some faculty oversight” (Spell et al., 2014, p. 102). Participating in research is integral to learning how to be a scientist. Legitimate peripheral participation as a research mentee allows for novices to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to move toward full participation in the scientific community (Lave and Wenger, 2001). Further, research experiences are lauded as a high-impact practice for undergraduates (American Association of Colleges and Universities, 2022), owing to the array of benefits that the experiences can provide. They are also essential to being accepted to many advanced degree programs in science (Seymour et al., 2004; Hancock et al., 2007; NASEM, 2017).
Presumably, the challenges that Muslims face on campus extend to them as science research mentees, especially considering the documented challenges that both undergraduates and graduates face in research (Cooper et al., 2020; Gin et al., 2021; Tuma et al., 2021). Indeed, studies show that religious students in academic science can experience challenges with their religious identity specifically in the context of research events such as journal clubs, lab meetings, and academic conferences (Barnes et al., 2021; Google et al., 2023). Additionally, creating more inclusive environments for research mentees is a necessary step in promoting the retention of Muslim researchers. Emerging evidence suggests that Muslims researchers may be underrepresented in academic science. A recent study attempted to contact every faculty member in biology, chemistry, physics, and geosciences departments across U.S. research-intensive (R1) universities for a demographic survey. Of the 874 tenure-track faculty who responded, only ∼0.1% of identified as Muslim (Busch et al., 2024), compared with 1.1% of the U.S. population (Pew Research Center, 2017b). Considering the likely underrepresentation of Muslim researchers in academic science, the documented challenges of Muslim undergraduate and graduate students that presumably extend to research experiences, and the importance of scientific research training opportunities, we argue that promoting culturally responsive mentoring of Muslim research mentees is a vital step in creating a more diverse and inclusive scientific community.
In this essay, we outline four Islamic religious practices and evidence suggesting that such practices may not align with the culture of U.S. academic scientific research. We draw from the extant literature to describe how non-Muslim research mentors can be culturally responsive and supportive of their Muslim research mentees.
Positionality Statement
This essay was written by two Sunni Muslim women Ph.D. students (T.F.M. and R.Q.A.) and their non-Muslim women research mentors (M.E.B. and K.M.C.). It is grounded in the literature on Muslim student experiences in higher education and was prompted by the perspectives of the two Muslim Ph.D. students and the self-admitted questions and misconceptions of their non-Muslim mentors. The essay is primarily focused on the experiences of undergraduate and graduate research mentees who work in a laboratory or in the field on research projects with faculty oversight (Spell et al., 2014, p. 102). However, we recognize that many of the sentiments may be relevant to postdoctoral scholars and Muslim research scientists more broadly.
Muslims, or people who practice the religion of Islam as a way of life, believe that “Allah (God)” (SWT)1 has revealed His word and message through the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH)2 (The Qur’an, Esposito, 1998). Within Islam, there are an array of cultural backgrounds, nationalities, and sects (Chen et al., 2019). As such, there are differences among the traditions and customs that Muslims follow (Ali and Bagheri, 2009). Our descriptions of Muslims and what they value is based on the holy text of the Qur’an. Therefore, we cite interpretations of the Qur’an from religious scholars, as well as the Qur’an itself. Throughout the essay, we introduce and italicize Arabic terms related to Islam. Our intent was to retain the language of the scripture where appropriate and to give readers definitions of words that Muslims may use. Our goal was to make this essay as representative of Muslims as possible, while also providing a practical guide for a non-Muslim audience.
There are five fundamental pillars of Islam (Schumm and Kohler, 2006; Kamal-ud-Din, 2010; Hussain, 2012; Pew Research Center, 2012; Dogan, 2013), which include 1) Declaration of faith: The belief that there is no God but Allah (God) (SWT) and Mohammed (PBUH) is the Messenger of God, 2) Prayer: Praying the five daily prayers, 3) Giving Zakat: Giving charity and supporting those in need, 4) Fasting in the month of Ramadan: Fasting the holy month of Ramadan from dawn to sunset, and 5) Hajj: Performing pilgrimage to Mecca if one can afford it. These obligatory or “fard” actions in Islam are actions that practicing Muslims strive to complete as a core part of their religious practice that form the foundation of Muslim life (Sadeq, 1987). We recognize that there are some variations within Islamic practices and that others may have differing views or interpretations. In this essay, we attempted to identify challenges and accommodations that are broadly applicable to Muslim research mentees. In effort to ensure the accuracy and inclusiveness of the essay, we sought feedback from a variety of individuals with different perspectives including devout Muslim women and men, an imam, which is a man in an Islamic leadership position, and biology education researchers who do not identify as Muslim.
In the following section, we first introduce the Islamic religious practices that evidence suggests may conflict with the culture of scientific research. It is important to note that the four Islamic religious practices highlighted below are not the pillars of Islam. However, two of the practices are closely related to the pillars of Islam: “Maintaining prayer obligations” is related to the pillar Prayer and “observing Islamic holidays” is related to the pillar “Fasting in the month of Ramadan.” For each practice, we begin by presenting a fictional vignette based on challenges that Muslims may face in scientific research, provide background information about the religious practice, discuss possible challenges, and introduce potential accommodations or ways that the Muslim research mentee or their research mentor can reconcile perceived conflict between the culture of Islam and the culture of scientific research. We want to emphasize that the vignettes are not based on interviews of Muslim research mentees and were created by the authors to introduce challenges that may arise for Muslim research mentees. Notably, there is not one correct solution to any of these challenges. Instead, each is meant to serve as a discussion point and highlight potential accommodations that can be made both within a research environment and within Islam.
ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND POTENTIAL ACCOMMODATIONS IN ACADEMIC SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Maintaining Prayer Obligations
My Principal Investigator (PI) just informed us that our weekly lab meeting will be from 4 PM to 6 PM on Mondays this semester. My PI doesn’t know that Maghrib prayer falls at ∼4:50 PM in my area. Should I ask my PI whether another time would work, or should I skip praying on time and pray after the lab meeting? -undergraduate researcher
Background.
Prayer (Salah) is one of the pillars of Islam (The Qur’an) and is a fundamental aspect of being a Muslim. Muslims pray for different reasons, including to strengthen their relationship with Allah (God) (SWT), to instill self-control and dedication, and to monitor oneself throughout the day (Schumm and Kohler, 2006; Kamal-ud-Din, 2010; Hussain, 2012; Dogan, 2013). Prayers are made five times a day: Fajr (dawn), Dhuhr (noon), Asr (afternoon), Maghrib (sunset), and Isha (night) (The Qur’an, Katz, 2013). The time at which one prays is based on the position of the sun (Ismaail et al., 2009). Thus, prayer timings change based on geographic location and time of the year. Typically, each prayer takes ∼5–10 min, but timing may vary based on what Muslims chose to recite during prayer. Muslims need to perform Wudu before praying, which is a cleansing ritual to clean parts of the body (face, arms, head, neck, and feet) (The Qur’an, 5:6, Salim, 2008). Wudu can be carried out in a restroom or designated cleaning area. Then, Muslims can perform Salah (prayer) in any space that is large enough for necessary prayer positions and movements, including standing, bowing, sitting, and prostrating3 toward the Qibla (direction facing the Ka’bah, the holiest site of Islam in Mecca, Saudi Arabia) (Hays, 2018). Ideally, the space for Salah is clean, quiet, and private (Johnson, 2004). Fridays are considered a special day of worship for Muslims. In place of Dhuhr, it is expected for Muslim men, and optional for Muslim women, to perform a congregational prayer (Jummah Prayer) at the mosque. This prayer takes ∼30–60 min, as attendees also listen to a sermon.
Possible Challenges.
Muslim undergraduate and graduate research mentees may find it challenging to pray during designated times because of research-related expectations and may not have access to a space to pray. Three prayers (Dhuhr, Asr, Maghrib) typically fall during the workday when research is conducted (Lapin, 1976; Hoffman et al., 2004; Rock-Singer, 2016). Muslims have reported that it is often challenging to pray during these designated times because of work (Schlosser and Sedlacek, 2001; Haque, 2004; Haddad et al., 2006; Padela et al., 2012; Stephenson, 2014) and academic expectations (Speck, 1997). Even when Muslims are able to pray during the designated times, they often struggle to identify appropriate space to pray (Seward and Khan, 2016). Studies have revealed that missing prayers or praying in spaces that are not appropriate can make Muslims feel uncomfortable, nervous, and uneasy (Akom, 2003; Haque, 2004; Nasir and Al-Amin, 2006; Ali and Bagheri, 2009; Seward and Khan, 2016; Chen et al., 2019). In academic research environments in particular, faculty, staff, and other students may not know about Muslim research mentees needs to pray, which can increase instances of discrimination and prejudice (Chen et al., 2019).
Potential Accommodations in Research Environments.
Each Muslim has their own relationship with prayer and religious activities (Winchester, 2008; Pew Research Center, 2017a). Therefore, it is often perceived as acceptable to ask a Muslim research mentee if they plan to pray during the day and if so, when prayers will be made and what space would be preferred (Chen et al., 2019). However, it can be difficult to have such a conversation if you are unsure of how one identifies religiously. One possible way to learn more about mentees is to create a survey that people can fill out when they join a research environment. Asking questions about how people identify and what related accommodations they need, with the option to decline to answer, can allow mentees to choose to share potentially important aspects of themselves with their mentors. First emphasizing that the lab is inclusive of all identities will likely maximize research mentees’ comfort revealing religious affiliations and associated needs (Quinn and Earnshaw, 2011).
Research suggests that avoiding scheduling events, such as lab meetings or one-on-one meetings, during the prayer times will likely help Muslim research mentees feel more included (Speck, 1997; Chen et al., 2019). Providing spaces for research mentees to pray can also be helpful; previous research on accommodating Muslim student prayers at universities has highlighted the importance of establishing Muslim student centers that include an appropriate prayer space (Nasir and Al-Amin, 2006; Ali and Bagheri, 2009). The presence of such spaces symbolizes university appreciation of religious diversity and is often perceived as a sign of the institutional support for Muslim students (Chen et al., 2019). Additionally, some institutions have created interfaith rooms for prayer, often located in a central space such as a student union (McHugh, 2017). In cases where universities have not designated appropriate prayer spaces, mentors can create or advocate for spaces where Muslim research mentees can comfortably perform their prayers. Conference rooms or private meeting rooms could potentially serve this purpose. Some Muslims may desire more privacy, while others may feel more comfortable in a less private or noisier space. Therefore, opening lines of communication in cases where accommodation may be especially difficult is important to help identify one’s personal priorities and flexibility. For example, while it is expected that Muslims pray on time, in cases where prayer cannot be completed on time Muslims should perform their missed prayer (Qadā) as soon as they can (The Qur’an). Notably, prayers are sequential and can be performed within an allotted time window. For instance, if an individual’s experiment runs long and they miss performing Dhuhr prayer on time (say around 12:30 pm) they would be able to still pray Dhuhr sometime before Asr, the next prayer of the day begins (around 4:30 pm). Additionally, there are circumstances where Muslims are not expected to pray. For example, prayer is not expected of children (i.e., Muslims who have not reached puberty), Muslims who are menstruating, or those who are experiencing postnatal bleeding (The Qur’an, Saalih al-Munajjid, 2006). Muslims who are traveling long distances can also perform Qasr prayer, which is a shortening of each prayer. Thus, there are options for accommodations on behalf of both the Muslim research mentee and the mentor.
Returning to the Vignette.
In the case presented above, the Muslim research mentee would likely have benefitted from a mentor who asked about prayer expectations, so that it would not have been their responsibility to initiate a discussion about the possibility of missing lab meeting. However, not all mentors may be comfortable having these conversations. Another option would be for the student to pray after the lab meeting if it is within the allotted time window before the next prayer of the day begins.
Observing Islamic Holidays
This year, Ramadan falls during the time our lab conducts fieldwork in extremely hot weather. Because I fast (do not eat or drink) from dawn to sunset during Ramadan, it would be physically dangerous to be out in the field during that time. Do I inform my PI that I cannot help with data collection this season or do I not fast? - Ph.D. student
Background.
Islamic holidays are not typically recognized by the U.S. academic calendar, which represents the mismatch between academic culture in the United States and the culture of Islam (Seggie and Sanford, 2010). Awareness and accommodations for Islamic holidays could make scientific research more inclusive for Muslim research mentees. Here, we briefly review common Islamic holidays and practices:
Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar based on the lunar calendar (The Qur’an, Esposito, 1998). As such, the timing of Ramadan typically varies by 10 or 11 days each year. Ramadan is the month during which the first verses of the holy Qur’an were revealed to Prophet Mohammed (PBUH), and is a holy month of reflection, introspection, prayer, and fasting for Muslims (The Qur’an, Whitman, 2011; Mizan, 2020; Hasan et al., 2021; Jones-Ahmed, 2022; Balkaya-Ince et al., 2023). During Ramadan, Muslims fast each day from dawn to sunset to achieve increased Taqwa, or God consciousness, defined as “a consciousness that directs people to experience the presence and existence of God” (Triyuwono, 2016 p.91). As Muslims try to increase in Taqwa, fasting is also meant to serve as a means of self-purification and moral improvement. Fasting applies to all Muslims except for children, people who are sick, travelling, breastfeeding, menstruating, experiencing postnatal bleeding, or individuals experiencing difficulty during pregnancy (Bhartiya, 2013).
Eid Al-Fitr is a festival that marks the end of Ramadan and is a one-day celebration, although some Muslim countries culturally celebrate it for 3 days (Zeidan, 2024). On the first day, most Muslims will attend Eid prayer in the morning at the mosque. During Eid, many will visit relatives and friends, give to charity, and sometimes exchange presents (Saeed, 1968).
Eid Al-Adha is the Festival of Sacrifice, a 3-day holiday when Muslims celebrate and remember the prophet Abraham’s (PBUH) loyalty and obedience to Allah (God) (SWT) (Khan and Hindy, 2018). It typically occurs on the 10th day of the 12th month of the Islamic calendar. On the first day in particular, Muslims often engage in Eid prayer, family events, and celebratory activities (Saeed, 1968).
Possible Challenges.
Because most academic calendars do not account for Islamic holidays (Schlosser and Sedlacek, 2001, 2003; Purinton and Gunther, 2011), Muslims research mentees may have research expectations that conflict with important holiday traditions and celebrations (Chen et al., 2019). Additionally, because Muslims fast from dawn until sunset during Ramadan, their ability to carry out physical demands associated with research may be affected, such as strenuous outdoor data collection or engaging in activities that require significant energy. Furthermore, important times of day, such as when Muslims need to break their fast, may conflict with prior commitments such as evening classes or research meetings (Speck, 1997), and it can be challenging for research mentees to wait to break their fast until an event is over.
Potential Accommodations in Research Environments.
Identifying what holidays are celebrated by a Muslim research mentee and scheduling academic deadlines and events around the corresponding times can be helpful (Chen et al., 2019). For example, a PI may want to be thoughtful about scheduling a student’s Master’s or Ph.D. defense before or after Ramadan, since expending the energy required to defend and engaging in typical academic celebrations may be difficult while fasting. Although many Muslims are often willing and able to perform tasks like giving a defense while fasting, it can be considerate to move the event if possible. Additionally, explicitly inviting Muslims to take time off during a religious holiday can allow Muslim research mentees to engage in religious events without needing to worry about balancing research commitments (Simpson, 2023). Given the length of Ramadan in particular, it is unlikely someone would take time off for the full length of this holy month; however, it may be helpful for research mentees to take off some time. Additionally, when possible, mentors can consider allowing Muslim research mentees to change their research hours during Ramadan. Muslims may prefer to do more work at night after they have broken their fast and have more energy (Chua, 2024). It can also be helpful to be mindful of lab events or celebrations that might be held during the month of Ramadan; describing the nature of the event and what activities will be involved can help fasting students decide if they want to participate (Ali and Bagheri, 2009). In certain situations where fasting during Ramadan can absolutely not be accommodated, Muslim mentees may be able to make up the missed fast or pay for Fidya or Kaffara, an expiation paid to those in need (Al-Azhari, 2022). As such, it can be helpful to initiate conversations with Muslim research mentees about their priorities and flexibility, particularly when making accommodations is especially difficult.
Returning to the Vignette.
In the presented vignette, where a Muslim research mentee needs to collect data in the extremely hot weather, which can be physically dangerous if done while fasting, it may be permissible for them to make up their fast after the data collection period ends. However, the permissibility of making up a fast to collect data likely varies based on personal beliefs. Alternatively, an accommodating mentor may help them find a collaborator who could collect data for them, given the constraints. Importantly, a lab that encourages open communication would allow the individual to discuss their options with a research mentor, ensuring that the research mentee does not feel as though they have to choose between their religious and research expectations.
Abstaining from Prohibited Food and Drink
A Ph.D. student in my lab successfully defended their thesis and we had a small gathering in the lab afterward. A fellow graduate student brought a bottle of champagne to celebrate. I was unsure about whether I should stay and abstain from drinking the champagne or whether I should leave. I didn’t want my colleague to think I didn’t want to celebrate their accomplishment - Master’s student
Background.
Dietary restrictions are prominent in Islam, but also in religions such as Hinduism, Judaism, and Buddhism (Freidenreich, 2011). Islam denotes dietary rules known as halal laws (Samori et al., 2014). In English, halal means “lawful.” The tenets of halal laws include: eating only halal meat (which is determined by slaughtering procedures) and ensuring that any other food products are not contaminated with any nonhalal foods. Muslims typically eat seafood and other types of meat including poultry, goat, and beef (Adekunle and Filson, 2020). However, many Muslims limit their consumption of these meats based on how the animal is slaughtered. In addition, there are foods and drinks that are haram or “forbidden” in Islam. Eating pork or any of its byproducts is considered haram (The Qur’an, Eliasi and Dwyer, 2002; Zin et al., 2021). Additionally, the consumption of alcohol and other intoxicants is not permissible (The Qur’an).
Possible Challenges.
Because Muslims do not eat pork and some only eat meat that is certified halal, eating at research events may be challenging if these dietary restrictions are not considered (Chen et al., 2019). Additionally, social gatherings of scientists often involve alcohol (Forrester, 2021). For example, alcohol is often present at conference poster sessions and receptions, a staple in celebrating academic milestones, a shared way of unwinding after a stressful day of research, part of seasonal gatherings, and often an unspoken (and even sometimes explicit) expectation of participating in graduate student journal clubs timed at happy hour. While most Muslims generally abstain from alcohol, the extent to which an individual feels comfortable in an environment where alcohol is present varies (Arifeen, 2020). For example, some Muslims report feeling uncomfortable in an environment where alcohol is served (Ali and Bagheri, 2009; Wingett and Turnbull, 2017; Arifeen, 2020). Yet, being excluded, albeit often unintentionally, from lab events may lead Muslim undergraduate and graduate students to feel socially isolated from their peers (Ali and Bagheri, 2009). Research has shown that Muslims can face difficult choices like whether to attend a professional happy hour; in one study, some Muslims who attended a professional happy hour reported that not drinking alcohol resulted in feelings of exclusion and marginalization (Arifeen, 2020).
Potential Accommodations in Research Environments.
Assuming everyone in the lab is going to engage in eating and drinking all foods and beverages is problematic regardless of how students religiously identify, owing to differences in dietary needs, preferences, and each individual’s relationship with alcohol. A generally inclusive practice that would likely benefit everyone in the lab is to survey incoming members about dietary restrictions, including their preference consuming and being around alcohol. This can be done privately, or publicly by filling out a shared lab document. This information can help all people in the lab create more inclusive lab events and avoid the need to make any assumptions about what Muslim research mentees are comfortable eating and drinking. When food is present at an event, a vegetarian or pescatarian option usually is considered halal and can be helpful to include when explicit conversations about preferences have not been had. While many Muslims recognize that their religion may not align with the culture of academic research and may expect to skip events that include alcohol (Stubbs and Sallee, 2013), having some lab events and celebrations that do not include alcohol can be an inclusive gesture (Ali and Bagheri, 2009; Arifeen, 2020). Additionally, asking about whether an individual wants to be invited to all lab opportunities, even when it is expected that they will decline, may be appreciated (Isaacs and Clark, 1990). These conversations can reduce a Muslim research mentee’s worry about offending people by repeatedly declining invitations, can reduce guilt on behalf of other lab members when not extending an invitation out of expectation that someone will decline, and generally increase transparency about the good intentions of all involved. Once the preferences of an individual are known, this can also help the PI make the Muslim research mentee aware of when an event may potentially make them feel uncomfortable, such as a conference reception with an open bar. Then, the Muslim research mentee can decide how to handle the situation before they enter it.
Returning to the Vignette.
In the fictional case presented in the vignette, if the Muslims research mentee had known that champagne would be served ahead of time, they would have had more time to think about whether they wanted to attend the event. Further, if they decided not to attend, they could have explained the decision to their lab mate, alleviating stress associated with being negatively evaluated for not attending the celebration.
Etiquettes of Islamic Modesty and Upholding Integrity
My research advisor introduced me to a prominent researcher in the field at a conference. The researcher reached out to shake my hand and I opted to place my hand over my heart in response. I was a bit concerned afterward that he did not understand why I didn’t shake his hand. - Woman undergraduate researcher
Background.
Respecting the guidelines outlined in the Qur’an that are meant to promote safety and integrity among Muslims is an important aspect of Islam (The Qur’an, Ebrahimi, 2017; Haron et al., 2020). Notably, the variation in the interpretation of such guidelines varies widely; each Muslim must make their best judgment about how to conduct themselves, balancing their personal beliefs with the practicality of a situation. Muslims are encouraged to keep all interactions with others as blessed as possible, while regarding the practical intention of an interaction (Purmul, 2016).
To establish a respectful and purified environment, and to reduce the potential for temptation, men and women4 are discouraged from engaging in any form of physical touch with someone who is not their spouse or their mahram, defined as a person who they are not permitted to marry due to familial ties (The Qur’an, Haredy, 2019). Additionally, it is discouraged for a man and a woman to be alone together, but each situation can be evaluated based on the specific circumstances and purpose. For example, if a Muslim research mentee who is a man has one-on-one research meetings with his research mentor who is a woman, that would often be considered acceptable as long as the purpose is pure. It is important that we acknowledge a common misconception about Islam: it is often assumed that Islam prohibits men and women from having natural human interactions. Instead, Islam encourages keeping human relations practical and constructive (Purmul, 2016). Unrelated men and women are allowed to communicate with each other if it is not with the intention of lust or does not lead to committing a sin.5 However, unrelated men and women are often restricted from physical contact (e.g., high five, handshake, tap of the shoulder), but same-gender interactions are acceptable. Additionally, when Muslim women engage in long distance travel where the journey or destination may be unsafe, it can be common for them to travel in the company of a mahram, or in the company of two other women (Hanim, 2021).
Possible Challenges.
While shaking hands is a frequent greeting in professional settings and hugging can be a common interaction among friends in research, these gestures may not be welcome by some Muslim research mentees, particularly when they are coming from the opposite gender (Moors and Salih, 2009; Schlatmann, 2020). Additionally, some Muslim research mentees may feel uncomfortable being in a space alone with an individual of the opposite gender. The need for a person of the same gender to be present when a Muslim research mentee is interacting with someone of the opposite gender may restrict the lab and field experiences that a Muslim research mentee can participate in. Additionally, the need to keep interactions with positive intentions may limit a Muslim research mentee’s ability to engage in research-related social interactions (Mir, 2007). However, Muslims’ comfort engaging in social interactions will differ. For example, some Muslim research mentees may choose to only socialize in public, professional locations, such as on campus, while others may be more comfortable socializing outside of work (Cole and Ahmadi, 2010). Traveling for conferences and presentations may also present challenges; some women may prefer or have expectations to travel with their spouse, a fellow Muslim, or with a family member including a mahram, and men may not feel comfortable traveling alone with a woman co-worker (Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security, 2022). Notably, some Muslims will be more comfortable than others with independent travel and opposite gender interactions; preferences can vary greatly based on personal interpretations and cultures (Shakona et al., 2015; Utami, 2019).
Potential Accommodations in Research Environments.
Accommodating a Muslim’s efforts to maintain their modesty and integrity can begin by openly discussing their needs and preferences. The mentor can also ask how best to communicate preferences to the lab. For example, a Muslim research mentee may appreciate a PI letting the lab know that physical touch from the same gender (e.g., a handshake or a hug) would be fine, but not if it comes from the opposite gender. The PI having this conversation with lab members before the Muslim research mentee arrives in the lab may decrease stress among everyone about how to interact respectfully (Hamzeh and Oliver, 2010). With regard to greetings, it is helpful to know that some Muslims will sometimes put their hand over their heart or do a slight bow while pressing their hands together at their chest to accept a greeting and show respect while avoiding physical touch (Naderi, 2018). Conferences can also implement stickers on name badges to indicate one’s comfort with physical touch (a popular practice that was adopted by many organizations as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic). Conversations about travel restrictions and preferences early in a mentee’s time in research can also be helpful. Discussions about what conferences and events the lab will be attending, who will be attending, how they will be traveling, and the safety of the journey and destination can provide helpful information that one can use to make an informed decision about traveling for research purposes. Explicitly inviting conversations about the extent to which family members would be able to travel with a researcher may also provide additional helpful information in terms of identifying potential challenges to participating in particular events.
Returning to the Vignette.
The fictional vignette highlighting a student who is uncomfortable shaking hands with someone of the opposite gender reminds us that scientists, including but not limited to Muslims, may abide by social standards that deviate from normative academic expectations. As such, normalizing practices like indicating one’s preference for physical touch at a conference can be inclusive and helpful for all. By simply bringing attention to alternative greetings, such as Muslims choosing to place their hand over their heart, we can help reduce unintended confusion that may stem from these interactions.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE MENTORING FOR MUSLIM RESEARCH MENTEES
Becoming aware of stereotypes and misconceptions that one may hold about Islam is integral to creating an inclusive scientific research environment for Muslims. It is important to acknowledge differences between religious culture and religious belief because they are often conflated (Exline, 2002; Pargament, 2002). Culture is “a body of knowledge that is acquired by people through years of being together in one society, whereas religion is a more specific belief system directed toward a supreme deity” (Angelo, 2018, p. 5). Notably, one’s personal culture may impose a stricter or less strict set of rules and guidelines than those outlined in this essay. As such, talking with Muslim research mentees will help mentors understand how to best create an inclusive lab environment.
Common Islamic religious practices and potential accommodations within scientific research spaces are summarized in Table 1. We emphasize the accommodations that research mentors can make for the purpose of creating a more inclusive scientific community. However, there are many exceptions to the outlined Islamic religious practices. In this essay, we intentionally tried to emphasize the extent to which Islam can be accommodating, by highlighting opportunities to make up missed prayers, the ability to work while fasting and during holidays, and having the freedom to decide how to handle certain situations based on one’s personal beliefs and the necessity of the situation. We hope this challenges stereotypes that Islam is rigid with no leniency or flexibility (Al-Sheha, 2007), and encourages discussion between research mentors and potential or current mentees about how to navigate religion in the context of research.
| Religious practices | Potential accommodations in scientific research environments |
|---|---|
| Maintaining prayer obligations | Communicate with Muslim research mentees about the extent to which they would like to pray during their research hours and what accommodations would be most helpful. |
| Adjust meeting times if they interfere with prayer times. | |
| Advocate for or allocate a clean, quiet, and private space for Muslim research mentees to pray on campus. | |
| If an individual needs to pray in a common space (e.g., lab meeting room), set an expectation for several minutes of quiet during their prayer time. | |
| Observing Islamic holidays | Ask what holidays Muslim research mentees celebrate and what accommodations would be most appreciated. |
| Encourage Muslim research mentees to engage in religious events and/or family gatherings without worrying about work-related expectations during these times. | |
| Abstaining from prohibited food and drink | Provide an opportunity for lab members to indicate dietary restrictions and preferences around alcohol. |
| Include food and drink options that are acceptable for Muslims. If restrictions are unknown, vegetarian and pescatarian options are often halal. | |
| Host at least some lab events that do not include alcohol to respect individual preferences. | |
| Etiquettes of Islamic modesty and upholding integrity | Ask about any religious expectations that may be unintentionally challenged in the context of research related events. |
| Allow social events to be optional and consider how to make such events as inclusive as possible. | |
| Inquire about whether and how to relay helpful information about Muslim research mentees to other members of the research community. For example, prior to a Muslim research mentee's arrival in the lab, the research mentee may prefer that a mentor communicate to the lab that they would not be comfortable shaking hands with the opposite gender. |
When considering such discussions, it is important to recognize that the power dynamics in a mentor-mentee relationship (Hudson, 2016) could prevent a mentee from voicing what changes could be made within a research space to maximize their experience. For example, in the cases we present where the mentee is Muslim and the mentor is not Muslim, the mentee may be unwilling to discuss each challenge with their mentor (Speck, 1997; Ting-Toomey, 2009). As such, mentors can work to make themselves approachable and start conversations about potential challenges in a friendly manner (Mostafa, 2006; Hamzeh and Oliver, 2010), in hopes of making Muslim research mentees more comfortable expressing their needs and preferences.
AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The scientific research community would benefit from studies that document the challenges and culturally responsive mentoring efforts that Muslim research mentees experience. Additionally, identifying misconceptions that non-Muslim mentors hold about the Islamic religion and their understanding of the challenges that Muslim research mentees may face in research would help inform the types of resources that would be most effective in promoting culturally responsive mentoring. Finally, if sample sizes permit, larger scale survey studies could assess whether the presence of culturally responsive mentoring practices in a Muslim research mentee’s lab correlate with outcomes such as feelings of belonging, science identity, and intent to persist in scientific research.
CONCLUSION
Being respectful of individuals with different religious identities is integral to creating more inclusive spaces in academic science (Barnes et al., 2017; Barnes and Brownell, 2017). This essay is a first step toward promoting culturally responsive mentoring of Muslim research mentees in the context of their scientific research experiences. In research, Muslim research mentees may experience challenges related to religious practices including prayer obligations, observing Islamic holidays, abstaining from prohibited food and drink, and etiquettes of Islamic modesty and upholding integrity. We propose an array of potential accommodations that mentors could make to try and create a more inclusive lab environment for Muslim research mentees, as well as highlight flexible aspects of Islam that may facilitate compromises between mentors and mentees. This essay exemplifies the compatibility of Islam with academic research practices and encourages the inclusion of Muslims in scientific research. We conclude that the primary way to begin culturally responsive mentoring of Muslim research mentee’s is to initiate conversation about a mentee’s religious practices and what would make them most comfortable and successful in their research environment. We hope that this essay can serve as a potential conversation starter.
FOOTNOTES
1When writing the name of “Allah (God)” (SWT), Muslims often follow it with the abbreviation “SWT,” which stands for the Arabic words “Subhanahu wa ta'al.” and means “The most glorified, the most high”. Muslims use these or similar words to glorify “Allah (God)” (SWT) when mentioning His name (The Second Proclamation, 2017).
2Peace be upon him (PBUH) is a phrase used by Muslims after mentioning the name of any prophet to show respect and to honor them (Shireen, 2022).
3“To be stretched out with one's face on the ground in adoration or submission.” (Webster, 2024).
4This essay is grounded in the Islamic text, which refers to men and women and assumes relationships between men and women. However, as the authors of this essay we recognize that not all individuals identify as gender binary and straight. The acceptance of individuals within the LGBTQ+ community varies among members of the Muslim community (Boussalem, 2020; Thompson, 2020). However, the Muslim authors of the essay believe that it is not the role of Muslim individuals to pass judgment on one's LGBTQ+ identity.
5The word “sin” means “violation” or “disobeying.” In Islam, it refers to bad deeds or when someone intentionally disobeys Allah's (SWT) commands (Khan, 2015).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Imam Alaa Ahmed, Jamileh Al-Asmer, Sara Brownell, Carly Busch, Adiyantara Gumilang, Mutiara Syifa, and Haneen Mohammed for their feedback on earlier drafts of this essay. We are also very grateful to the reviewers for their thoughtful insights. We acknowledge the National Science Foundation for supporting K.M.C. (2143671), T.F.M (026257-001), R.Q.A. (2238174), and M.E.B. (1818659). Any opinions expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF.
